Protein isolation Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Protein isolation - Lab Report Example The aim of the experiment is to isolate, purify and identify Rubsico in spinach leaves using Ammonium sulphate, spectrophotometry, and electrophoresis and ion exchange techniques. Spinach leaves were described, homogenized and rubisco isolated using two grades of ammonium sulphate concentrations (37 % and 50%). Filtrates and supernatants were tested using appropriate techniques to ascertain successful isolation. (Robinson, Streusand, Chatfield and Portis, 1988) The isolate was then purified using DEAE Cellulose fast flow ion exchange chromatography and bound proteins eluted using different shades of salt concentration. Purified proteins were run on a SDS-gel electrophoresis to identify the isolate (Robinson, Streusand, Chatfield and Portis , 1988). Ammonium sulphate (salt) precipitates proteins by altering hydrogen bond interaction between protein and water molecules. Ammonium sulphate a high affinity for water molecules displaces protein molecules (lowers the solubility) thereby causing precipitation. Different protein molecules precipitate at different concentrations of ammonium sulphate and at the rate at which it is added. The effect of salt concentration on the isolation of rubisco is shown on figure 1. The absence of the rubisco band on sample p2 (protein isolated at 50 % salt concentration) shows a significant amount of the protein was isolated at 37% concentrations of ammonium sulphate. A protein molecular weight ladder shown in figure 2 was used to establish a calibration curve that used to identify the protein isolate. Figure 1 The effect of salt concentration on the isolation of proteins; the top arrows represent the samples ( from left to right: MW ladder, leaf extract filtrate, Supernatant of first precipitate (S37%), Pellet of first precipitate (S37%) at low salt, Pellet of first precipitate (S37%) at medium salt, Pellet of

Investigation of REDBULL Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Investigation of REDBULL - Research Paper Example caffeine and glucose on the cognitive and cardiovascular performances of students during a two hour long lecture. An interventional study was conducted to test whether stimulation (caffeine, caffeine + glucose, glucose drink) can effect physiological and cognitive changes in an individual within a controlled environment amongst 16 students. The participants were required to fill out a lifestyle questionnaire after which their cardiovascular parameters (i.e. heart rate and MAP) and cognitive performance (via a reaction time test) were assessed. Subsequently, they were asked to consume a 250 ml drink on 7 different occasions, from a selection of the following beverages: water, red bull, red bull with no added sugar and soft drink. The participants were then asked to wear an ambulatory device during a 2 hour lecture which was set to read their heart rate and blood pressure every 30 min. At the end of the 2 hour lecture, the participants were required to undertake a repeat reaction time test. ... Thus, it can be concluded that the consumption of Energy Drinks results in an improvement in cardiovascular and cognitive performance and both the glucose and the caffeine component have a contributory role in the improvement of these parameters. Introduction: Over the last few decades, there has been a witnessed increase in popularity of diet/health food and other food fads, and a concurrent rise in the popularity and demand for functional foods, an example of which are energy drinks, such as Red Bull (Smit et al., 2004; Finnegan, 2003). Energy Drinks are categorized as â€Å"stimulant drinks,† which have been defined by the Stimulant Drinks Committee as ‘a beverage which typically contains caffeine, taurine and vitamin(s) and may contain an energy source (e.g. carbohydrate) and/or other substance(s), marketed for the specific purpose of providing real or perceived enhanced physiological and/or performance effects (Stimulant Drinks Committee, 2003, p. iv).’ The m anufacturers of Energy Drinks claim that such drinks enhance both mental and physical functions, resulting in improved physical endurance, increased alertness and concentration, augmented reaction speed and an elevated mood (Kim, 2003; Kaminer, 2010). â€Å"Energy Drinks† are so called because they are thought to be stimulant in nature, providing the consumers with an instant boost of energy and alertness and decreasing lethargy and sleepiness, have been present in the global market in their current guise from the late nineties, but under the banner stimulant drinks, these have been sold and marketed for many years, and have been gaining widespread fame ever since (Kim, 2003). For example, Lucozade, a UK branded energy

The Body Shop Essay Example for Free

The Body Shop Essay Introduction The body shop was founded by Dame Anita Roddick in the year 1976. However on July 12, 2006 body shop was delisted from the London stock exchange and is currently being operated under independent management under the L’Oreal group with the able guidance of current CEO Sophie Gassperment. The body shop has been in the personal grooming and toiletries industry since 1976. Over the years the body shop has gained reputation in being one of the leading brands in the industry which not only focusses on an individual well-being but also the well-being of the planet and all associated with the company. The body shop has 2500 stores in over 60 countries Market share and competition The sales estimations of body shop show that a sales transaction is made every 0.4 seconds and has a existing customer base of 77 million up until 2011. The body shop annual sales is 855 million euros and operating profit is 77 million euros with an estimated growth of 13.9% annually. Product description Beer shampoo and conditioner 2in 1 The product contains actual beer which provides shine bounce and volume to the hair. USP’s 2 in 1 shampoo +conditioner Made from 100% natural and organic product Volumizing shampoo Anti-frizz shampoo Moisturizes hair Suitable for all hair types Customer value The product suits all hair types of both men and women providing them with same results of shiny glossy and soft hair. It will enable the customer to not only save time but also save money as they would not have to spend on buying separate bottles of shampoo and conditioner. Target Market

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN) 1. Abstract WAN Wide Area Network is a communication network that make use of existing technology to connect local area network into a larger working network which may cover both national and international location. Wide Area Network allows a company to make use of common resources in order to operate, internal functions such as sales, production, development, marketing and accounting can be shared with authorized locations through this sort of network application. So thats why it is so important today. In this paper, I am going to demonstrates the techniques required for computer network from technology, architecture, media, protocol and routing algorithm based on the OSI seven layer model. 2. Introduction Bambi Co., Ltd. decided to implement a Wide Area Network between their two site in two different countries. As the network engineer of the company, is responsible to study, plan, design and implementation of a Wide Area Network for connecting two sites local area network. The requirement by the company that made the WAN a necessity are enumerated. The choice of WAN, hardware and the software is explained within the context of the needs of the company. Finally the benefits accruing to the company are identified and determined. 3. Company Background Bambi Co., Ltd. has two sites located in two different countries. Site A, the main office which located in Hong Kong and Site B, a factory which located in Shenzhen, the mainland China. In Site A, there are around 10 client workstations and Site B around 40 client workstations. There are three servers located in Site A, they are the domain server, email server and content management server. Another domain server also located in Site B, it mainly provide the services for Shenzhen users. 4. User requirement 4.1 Functionality On most of the users, their main concern is application available from the network. This including the following matters: 4.1.1 Fast response time Response time is the time between entering a command or keystroke and the execution of the command deliver a response. For users on Bambi Co., Ltd. environment, response time is the response running application or access from/to the servers, transmission of information as well as access to Internet. 4.1.2 High throughput The throughput environment on the company can be expected to be high. It can be expected that the throughput usage on the network will involve many users frequently access to the server and also to the Internet at same time. 4.2 Scalability The WAN implementation is expected to be function for a minimum of 5 years without the needs of upgrade the network equipments or rewiring the horizontal or vertical cable. 4.3 Adaptability The WAN implementation must be flexible enough to meet the demand of ever-growing needs of technologies when they become available. It might included with newer switching technology, more secure or faster router incorporating with new routing protocols and etc. Therefore, the WAN solution should be modular which allow added or swapped new network equipment with a minimum of network downtime. 4.4 Security The information transfer must be protected through the WAN environment. This is very important as to prevent the company data from stolen from their competitors. 4.5 Manageability The WAN implementation must be manageable and able to monitor by the network administrator. 4.6 Reliability Reliability of the WAN is important. The WAN must include fault-tolerance function and elements to give the stability of the network to reduce any unnecessary network downtime. 5. WAN solution 5.1 Regional Private Network Service Provider: Pacnet Type: MPLS VPN Bandwidth: 2Mbps Description: Connect between Bambi Co., Ltd. Site A and B 5.1.1 Introducing of MPLS and architecture MPLS stands for Multiprotocol Label Switching. It has been around for several years. It is standardized by IETF. (The Internet Engineering Task Force) Why multiprotocol? Since at the OSI 7 layer model, it operates between the layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and the layer 3 (Network Layer), so it often view as a 2.5 layer protocol. Conventional data packets are routed based on IP address and other information in the header. MPLS simplifies the forwarding function by taking a total different approach by introducing a connection oriented mechanism inside the connectionless IP network. Label switching indicates that the packets switched are no longer IPv4 or IPv6 packets and even Layer 2 frames when switched, but they are labeled. Below showing the MPLS header format. First 20-bits: Label value 20 22 bits: Three Experimental (EXP) bits, use for quality of service (QoS) 23 bit: Bottom of Stack (Bos) bit, 1 for bottom label, 0 otherwise 24 to 31 bits: Time To Live (TTL) 5.1.2 MPLS components and operation MPLS network comprise the following elements: Label Edge Router (LER): Router placed at the edge of the MPLS network Label Switching Router (LSR): MPLS capable router Label Switch Path (LSP): An ordered sequence of LSRs Label Distribution Protocol (LDP): Set of procedures by which LSRs establish LSPs In MPLS network, an optimal path is firstly determine and tag. When packets enter the MPLS network, the input router and switch uses the layer 3 header to assign the packets to one of this predetermine path. MPLS using a label stacking process to better handle the traffic. A label is attached to the end to end path information in the packet. The label together with the data packet as it cross the network. All other routers along the path use the label to determine the next hop address instead of the IP address. Since this device only operates on the information in the label, processor-intensive analysis and classification of the layer 3 header occur only at the entrance to the network. This remove much of the overhead used in the network and therefore, speed up the overall processing of data. 5.1.3 MPLS Protocols MPLS use 2 protocols to establish the LSP, they are: MPLS Routing protocol Distribute topology information only. Interior gateway protocol such as OSPF, IS-, BGP-4 is normally use. MPLS Signaling protocol Information for program the switching fabric. RSVP-TE and LDP is used. 5.1.4 MPLS VPN MPLS Virtual Private Networks (VPN) is the most popular and widespread implementation of MPLS technology. A VPN provide communication at OSI layer 2 or 3. VPN is protected by strong encryption. In general, the data travel across the VPN is not visible and encapsulated. MPLS is well suited for VPN because of its characteristics. 5.2 Internet Connection Service Provider: Pacnet Type: SHDSL Bandwidth: 4Mbps downstream/4Mbps upstream Description: Applied at Site A. By the way, the WAN connection will be allowed the Internet share with Site B office. In order to fulfill both sites demand, Single High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (SHDSL) has chosen. SHDSL is one of the DSL family technology. Similar with other SDSL service, the upstream and downstream data rates are equal. One of its advantage of SHDSL is its high symmetric data rates with guaranteed bandwidth and low interference. In Bambi Co., Ltd. a 4M/4M speed line is using for their Internet connection. 6. Ethernet Standard CAT 6 (Category 6) twisted-pair UTP is using under Bambi Co., Ltd. LAN environment. Its Gigabit Ethernet cable standard which bandwidth up to 400MHz and over a range of 100 m. It meet up the ANSI/TIA-568-B.2-1 performance specification. 7. Network Environment Overview 7.1 Entire Network Diagram 7.2 Hardware/Software description 7.3 Network configuration 7.3.1 Protocol and LAN segments With the popularity of the Internet, TCP/IP become the most popular protocol. In Bambi Co., Ltd. only TCP/IP protocol allowed to be implement on the network environment. All servers and desktop PCs located on Site A and B will have static addresses, while notebook PCs will obtain addresses by utilizing Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). IPv4 will be chosen as the type. Compare with IPv6, IPv4 had been around for many years, there are much more hardware and software supports. 8. Security The following is the security arrangement for protect companys data: 8.1 Authentication Each staff sign an individual login id for access their workstation and server resource like the email. The password establishes complexity level with minimum length of 5 characters. The password will enforce change every 3 months. 8.2 Authorization Only some authorize staffs with Internet connection. This prevent the data disclose by FTP, web mail or any online storage. 8.3 Audit The email server is able to keep logging which allow the administrative staff trace whether any company important data disclose by email. 8.4 Monitor The firewall and switch are able to monitor the network for suspicious activity. For example, if the firewall detect heavy traffic or overload session, it will send email alert to the network administrator. 8.5 Virus Protection Some kind of computer virus will steal infected computers data. So every servers and client workstations has install a memory resident antivirus software for protection. The UMT firewall also provide gateway antivirus function which prevent virus from the layer 2 level. 8.6 Encryption The MPLS VPN deployed to be high security network tunnel. The data transmit between site A and B office with strong encryption. 9. Conclusion In the user requirement chapter, 6 requirements were outlined. We summarize the benefits from applying the MPLS as below: 9.1 Functionality No performance bottleneck of CPE VPN devices Reduced network latency Guaranteed SLA (Service level agreement) for time critical applications Supports the delivery of services with QoS (Quality of service) guarantees 9.2 Scalability Highly scalable since no site to site peering is required and reconfiguration of VPN devices. 9.3 Adaptability Multiple connection type and bandwidth selection (e.g. ATM, Metro Ethernet, Broadband, etc.) 9.4 Security Private network completely isolated from Internet. 9.5 Manageability Customer is able to complete control their own routing. 9.6 Reliability Enable fast restoration from failures The network design presented here meets all those objectives. Both for today and in the future. 10. Reference Rosen, E., Viswanathan, A. and Callon, R. (2001) Multiprotocol Label Switching Architecture, IETF Documents, [Online] Available from: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3031, [accessed on 07/03/10] PACNET 2010: Pacnet Domestic IP VPN Available on: http://hk.pacnet.com/network/domestic-ip-vpn/, [accessed on 13/03/10] Bates, R. (2002) Broadband Telecommunications Handbook. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill Professional, Columbus. Guichard, B. PepeInjak, I. and Apcar, J. (2003) MPLS and VPN Architectures, Volume II. Cisco Press, Indiana. Ghein, L. (2007) MPLS Fundamentals. Cisco Press, Indiana. Jamison, S. Cardarelli, M. and Hanley, S. (2007) Essential SharePoint 2007. Pearson Education, Inc., Boston.

Edgar Allen Poe :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The gothic short stories and poems of Edgar Allan Poe are so outstanding that they are still being read today. He only lived for forty years yet made such a huge impact on literature. Poe tells Thomas W. Fredrick in a letter, why he became a writer. â€Å" Depend upon it, after all, Thomas, Literature is the most noble of professions. In fact, it is about the only one fit for a man. For my own part, there is no seducing me from the path.†(Edgar Allan Poe’s Life, intro page) The word that best describes the life and works of Edgar Allan Poe would have to be mystery. Not only is it seen in his literary works, but in his life as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston on January 19, 1809 to Elizabeth Arnold Poe and David Poe Jr. His parents were both actors who hardly made enough money to live on. Edgar had two siblings, an older brother named William Henry, who lived with relatives in Baltimore, and a baby sister named Rosalie. When Edgar was about two years old, his father died, or disappeared (no one knows for sure). Shortly after, his mother died of tuberculosis, the two children were all alone. In 1811,a t the age of two, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan. Mr. Allan Refused to adopt Edgar but said he could stay with them. Rosalie was taken by another family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Poe lived in Richmond until he was six years old, then the Allans and Poe moved to Scotland. Poe attended school at Irvine Grammar School and for several years at Manor House School in Stoke Newington. (The Manor may have been reproduced in some of the darkly romantic houses in Poe’s stories). When Edgar was eleven the Allan’s returned to Richmond. There he went to school at an English and Classical School attended by the more wealthy children. At this time, Edgar began to notice how diffrent he was and began to feel bitterness towards his mother and Mr. Allan. He expressed his feelings at age sixteen, when he began to write poems and short stories. He became very arrogant and didn’t get along with anyone.

Louis Riel: A Summary of Man :: Riel

Riel A Summary of Man Author: J. A. W. The Canadian hero Louis Riel shows mankind that life is fraught with controversies and battle with establishment. Moreover, establishment is the very ruin of Mankind. Riel's live was in more ways parallel to the human life cycle than one would guess. From the birth to the death of the notorious Riel, we can see how little control an individual really has over life. Louis Riel started out life living in the sticks far from 'civilization,' caring parents, who taught him the basics of life, raised him. His early home was simple, uncomplicated, his family farmed and hunted on the side to make a living. Like the hunter/gatherer people in prehistoric times, as these people lived mainly of the Wooly Mammoth1, so lived Riel's people of the giant buffalo herds, both people depending with their very life on these beasts. Just as the sudden extinction of the Wooly Mammoth complicated things for early mans' hunting habits, politics complicated Riel's outlook on life. Life got swiftly more complicated as Riel grew up. As the country came into the hands of "civilized people", it's people were forced into a lifestyle which was more complicated than the hunting and gathering lifestyle the Riels and other Metis families were used to. Establishment is the biggest complication in life, Riel fought this all his life, in the end it won. What advances did civilizati on make in this killing? It benefited them little other than the satisfaction of routing their enemy. Are people satisfied; was that the end? That remains to be proven; people are still fighting to gain amnesty for Riel. Life did not stay simple for people, problems started. As people established customs and started to stray from the hunter-gatherer society things got more complicated. Slave labor was one of the prominent drawbacks of people establishing new cultures. People needed slaves to build the huge monuments that they used to show their power and their allegiance to their Gods. The huge prehistoric stone calendar called Stonehenge2 may be the first example of slave work ever built. Canadians built up the West using methods that were essentially the same; they actualized it at the cost of the Metis' and Natives' lives and their livelihood. Riel's people, because they learned to depend the staples they could get in trade for hides and pemmican, were slaves of buffalo hunt and fur trade, thus slaves of the whites.

Kodak Company Case Study

Hyun Lee Eastman Kodak v. Image Technical Services — Plaintiff This is yet another case that concerns the standard for summary judgment in an antitrust controversy. The principal issue here is whether a defendant's lack of market power in the primary equipment market precludes — as a matter of law — the possibility of market power in derivative aftermarkets. Eastman Kodak Company manufactures and sells photocopiers and micrographic equipment. Kodak also sells service and replacement parts for its equipment. Respondents are 18 independent service organizations (ISOs) that in the early 1980s began servicing Kodak copying and micrographic equipment. Kodak subsequently adopted policies to limit the availability of parts to ISOs and to make it more difficult for ISOs to compete with Kodak in servicing Kodak equipment. Respondents instituted this action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California alleging that Kodak's policies were unlawful under both  §Ã‚ § 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act, 1 and 2. After truncated discovery, the District Court granted summary judgment for Kodak. The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed. The appellate court found that respondents had presented sufficient evidence to raise a genuine issue concerning Kodak's market power in the service and parts markets. It rejected Kodak's contention that lack of market power in service and parts must be assumed when such power is absent in the equipment market. Kodak manufactures and sells complex business machines — as relevant here, high volume photocopier and micrographics equipment. Kodak equipment is unique; micrographic software programs that operate on Kodak machines, for example, are not compatible with competitors' machines. Kodak parts are not compatible with other manufacturers' equipment, and vice versa. Kodak equipment, although expensive when new, has little resale value. Kodak provides service and parts for its machines to its customers. It produces some of the parts itself; the rest are made to order for Kodak by independent original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Kodak does not sell a complete system of original equipment, lifetime service, and lifetime parts for a single price. Instead, Kodak provides service after the initial warranty period either through annual service contracts, which include all necessary parts, or on a per call basis. It charges, through negotiations and bidding, different prices for equipment, service, and parts for different customers. Kodak provides 80% to 95% of the service for Kodak machines. Beginning in the early 1980s, ISOs began repairing and servicing Kodak equipment. They also sold parts and reconditioned and sold used Kodak equipment. Their customers were federal, state, and local government agencies, banks, insurance companies, industrial enterprises, and providers of specialized copy and microfilming services. ISOs provide service at a price substantially lower than Kodak does. Some customers found that the ISO service was of higher quality. In 1985 and 1986, Kodak implemented a policy of selling replacement parts for micrographic and copying machines only to buyers of Kodak equipment who use Kodak service or repair their own machines. As part of the same policy, Kodak sought to limit ISO access to other sources of Kodak parts. Kodak and the OEMs agreed that the OEMs would not sell parts that fit Kodak equipment to anyone other than Kodak. Kodak also pressured Kodak equipment owners and independent parts distributors not to sell Kodak parts to ISOs. In addition, Kodak took steps to restrict the availability of used machines. Kodak intended, through these policies, to make it more difficult for ISOs to sell service for Kodak machines. It succeeded. ISOs were unable to obtain parts from reliable sources, and many were forced out of business, while others lost substantial revenue. Customers were forced to switch to Kodak service even though they preferred ISO service. In 1987, the ISOs filed the present action in the District Court, alleging, inter alia, that Kodak had unlawfully tied the sale of service for Kodak machines to the sale of parts, in violation of  § 1 of the Sherman Act, and had unlawfully monopolized and attempted to monopolize the sale of service for Kodak machines, in violation of  § 2 of that Act. Kodak filed a motion for summary judgment before respondents had initiated discovery. The District Court permitted respondents to file one set of interrogatories and one set of requests for production of documents, and to take six depositions. Without a hearing, the District Court granted summary judgment in favor of Kodak. As to the  § 1 claim, the court found that respondents had provided no evidence of a tying arrangement between Kodak equipment and service or parts. The court, however, did not address respondents'  § 1 claim that is at issue here. Respondents allege a tying arrangement not between Kodak equipment and service, but between Kodak parts and service. As to the  § 2 claim, the District Court concluded that although Kodak had a â€Å"natural monopoly over the market for parts it sells under its name,† a unilateral refusal to sell those parts to ISOs did not violate  § 2. Noting that the District Court had not considered the market power issue, and that the record was not fully developed through discovery, the court declined to require respondents to conduct market analysis or to pinpoint specific imperfections in order to withstand summary judgment. The court then considered the three business justifications Kodak proffered for its restrictive parts policy: (1) to guard against inadequate service, (2) to lower inventory costs, and (3) to prevent ISOs from free riding on Kodak's investment in the copier and micrographic industry. The court concluded that the trier of fact might find the product quality and inventory reasons to be perpetual and that there was a less restrictive alternative for achieving Kodak's quality related goals. The court also found Kodak's third justification, preventing ISOs from profiting on Kodak's investments in the equipment markets, legally insufficient. As to the  § 2 claim, the Court of Appeals concluded that sufficient evidence existed to support a finding that Kodak's implementation of its parts policy was â€Å"anticompetitive† and â€Å"exclusionary† and â€Å"involved a specific intent to monopolize. † It held that the ISOs had come forward with sufficient evidence, for summary judgment purposes, to disprove Kodak's business justifications. The dissent in the Court of Appeals, with respect to the  § 1 claim, accepted Kodak's argument that evidence of competition in the equipment market â€Å"necessarily precludes power in the derivative market. † With respect to the  § 2 monopolization claim, the dissent concluded that, entirely apart from market power considerations, Kodak was entitled to summary judgment on the basis of its first business justification because it had â€Å"submitted extensive and undisputed evidence of a marketing strategy based on high quality service. A tying arrangement is â€Å"an agreement by a party to sell one product but only on the condition that the buyer also purchases a different (or tied) product, or at least agrees that he will not purchase that product from any other supplier. † Such an arrangement violates  § 1 of the Sherman Act if the seller has â€Å"appreciable economic power† in the tying product market and if the arrangement affects a substantial volum e of commerce in the tied market. Kodak did not dispute that its arrangement affects a substantial volume of interstate commerce. It, however, did challenge whether its activities constituted a â€Å"tying arrangement† and whether Kodak exercised â€Å"appreciable economic power† in the tying market. We consider these issues in turn. For the respondents to defeat a motion for summary judgment on their claim of a tying arrangement, a reasonable trier of fact must be able to find, first, that service and parts are two distinct products, and, second, that Kodak has tied the sale of the two products. For service and parts to be considered two distinct products, there must be sufficient consumer demand so that it is efficient for a firm to provide service separately from parts. Jefferson Evidence in the record indicates that service and parts have been sold separately in the past and still are sold separately to self service equipment owners. Indeed, the development of the entire high technology service industry is evidence of the efficiency of a separate market for service. Kodak insists that because there is no demand for parts separate from service, there cannot be separate markets for service and parts. By that logic, we would be forced to conclude that there can never be separate markets, for example, for cameras and film, computers and software, or automobiles and tires. That is an assumption we are unwilling to make. â€Å"We have often found arrangements involving functionally linked products at least one of which is useless without the other to be prohibited tying devices. Kodak's assertion also appears to be incorrect as a factual matter. At least some consumers would purchase service without parts, because some service does not require parts, and some consumers, those who self service for example, would purchase parts without service. Finally, respondents have presented sufficient evidence of a tie between service and parts. The record indicates that Kodak would sell parts to third parties only if they agreed not to buy service from ISOs. Having found sufficient evidence of a tying arrangement, we consider the other necessary feature of an illegal tying arrangement: appreciable economic power in the tying market. Market power is the power â€Å"to force a purchaser to do something that he would not do in a competitive market. † It has been defined as â€Å"the ability of a single seller to raise price and restrict output. † The existence of such power ordinarily is inferred from the seller's possession of a predominant share of the market. Respondents contend that Kodak has more than sufficient power in the parts market to force unwanted purchases of he tied market, service. Respondents provide evidence that certain parts are available exclusively through Kodak. Respondents also assert that Kodak has control over the availability of parts it does not manufacture. According to respondents' evidence, Kodak has prohibited independent manufacturers from selling Kodak parts to ISOs, pressured Kodak equipment owners and independent parts distributors to deny ISOs the purchase of Kodak parts, and taken steps to restrict the availability of used machines. Respondents also allege that Kodak's control over the parts market has excluded service competition, boosted service prices, and forced unwilling consumption of Kodak service. Respondents offer evidence that consumers have switched to Kodak service even though they preferred ISO service, that Kodak service was of higher price and lower quality than the preferred ISO service, and that ISOs were driven out of business by Kodak's policies. Under our prior precedents, this evidence would be sufficient to entitle respondents to a trial on their claim of market power. To review Kodak's theory, it contends that higher service prices will lead to a disastrous drop in equipment sales. Presumably, the theory's corollary is to the effect that low service prices lead to a dramatic increase in equipment sales. According to the theory, one would have expected Kodak to take advantage of lower priced ISO service as an opportunity to expand equipment sales. Instead, Kodak adopted a restrictive sales policy consciously designed to eliminate the lower priced ISO service, an act that would be expected to devastate either Kodak's equipment sales or Kodak's faith in its theory. Yet, according to the record, it has done neither. Service prices have risen for Kodak customers, but there is no evidence or assertion that Kodak equipment sales have dropped. Respondents offer a forceful reason why Kodak's theory, although perhaps intuitively appealing, may not accurately explain the behavior of the primary and derivative markets for complex durable goods: the existence of significant information and switching costs. These costs could create a less responsive connection between service and parts prices and equipment sales. For the service market price to affect equipment demand, consumers must inform themselves of the total cost of the â€Å"package† — equipment, service and parts — at the time of purchase; that is, consumers must engage in accurate life cycle pricing. Lifecycle pricing of complex, durable equipment is difficult and costly. In order to arrive at an accurate price, a consumer must acquire a substantial amount of raw data and undertake sophisticated analysis. The necessary information would include data on price, quality, and availability of products needed to operate, upgrade, or enhance the initial equipment, as well as service and repair costs, including estimates of breakdown frequency, nature of repairs, price of service and parts, length of â€Å"downtime† and losses incurred from downtime. Much of this information is difficult — some of it impossible — to acquire at the time of purchase. During the life of a product, companies may change the service and parts prices, and develop products with more advanced features, a decreased need for repair, or new warranties. In addition, the information is likely to be customer specific; lifecycle costs will vary from customer to customer with the type of equipment, degrees of equipment use, and costs of downtime. Indeed, respondents have presented evidence that Kodak practices price discrimination by selling parts to customers who service their own equipment, but refusing to sell parts to customers who hire third party service companies. Companies that have their own service staff are likely to be high volume users, the same companies for whom it is most likely to be economically worthwhile to acquire the complex information needed for comparative lifecycle pricing. A second factor undermining Kodak's claim that â€Å"supracompetitive† prices in the service market lead to ruinous losses in equipment sales is the cost to current owners of switching to a different product. If the cost of switching is high, consumers who already have purchased the equipment, and are thus â€Å"locked in,† will tolerate some level of service price increases before changing equipment brands. Under this scenario, a seller profitably could maintain â€Å"supracompetitive† prices in the aftermarket if the switching costs were high relative to the increase in service prices, and the number of locked in customers were high relative to the number of new purchasers. Moreover, if the seller can price discriminate between its locked in customers and potential new customers, this strategy is even more likely to prove profitable. The seller could simply charge new customers below marginal cost on the equipment and recoup the charges in service, or offer packages with life time warranties or long term service agreements that are not available to locked-in customers. Respondents have offered evidence that the heavy initial outlay for Kodak equipment, combined with the required support material that works only with Kodak equipment, makes switching costs very high for existing Kodak customers. And Kodak's own evidence confirms that it varies the package price of equipment/parts/service for different customers. In sum, there is a question of fact whether information costs and switching costs foil the simple assumption that the equipment and service markets act as pure complements to one another. We conclude, then, that Kodak has failed to demonstrate that respondents' inference of market power in the service and parts markets is unreasonable, and that, consequently, Kodak is entitled to summary judgment. It is clearly reasonable to infer that Kodak has market power to raise prices and drive out competition in the aftermarkets, since respondents offer direct evidence that Kodak did so. It is also plausible, as discussed above, to infer that Kodak chose to gain immediate profits by exerting that market power where locked in customers, high information costs, and discriminatory pricing limited and perhaps eliminated any long term loss. The alleged conduct — higher service prices and market foreclosure — is facially anticompetitive and exactly the harm that antitrust laws aim to prevent. Respondents also claim that they have presented genuine issues for trial as to whether Kodak has monopolized or attempted to monopolize the service and parts markets in violation of  § 2 of the Sherman Act. â€Å"The offense of monopoly under  § 2 of the Sherman Act has two elements: (1) the possession of monopoly power in the relevant market and (2) the willful acquisition or maintenance of that power as distinguished from growth or development as a consequence of a superior product, business acumen, or historic accident. † The existence of the first element, possession of monopoly power, is easily resolved. As has been noted, respondents have presented a triable claim that service and parts are separate markets, and that Kodak has the â€Å"power to control prices or exclude competition† in service and parts. Monopoly power under  § 2 requires, of course, something greater than market power under  § 1. Respondents' evidence that Kodak controls nearly 100% of the parts market and 80% to 95% of the service market, with no readily available substitutes, is, however, sufficient to survive summary judgment under the more stringent monopoly standard of  § 2. The second element of a  § 2 claim is the use of monopoly power â€Å"to foreclose competition, to gain a competitive advantage, or to destroy a competitor. † If Kodak adopted its parts and service policies as part of a scheme of willful acquisition or maintenance of monopoly power, it will have violated  § 2. As recounted at length above, respondents have presented evidence that Kodak took exclusionary action to maintain its parts monopoly and used its control over parts to strengthen its monopoly share of the Kodak service market. Liability turns, then, on whether â€Å"valid business reasons† can explain Kodak's actions. Kodak contends that it has three valid business justifications for its actions: â€Å"(1) to promote interbrand equipment competition by allowing Kodak to stress the quality of its service; (2) to improve asset management by reducing Kodak's inventory costs; and (3) to prevent ISOs from free riding on Kodak's capital investment in equipment, parts and service. † Factual questions exist, however, about the validity and sufficiency of each claimed justification, making summary judgment inappropriate. As respondents argue, Kodak's actions appear inconsistent with any need to control inventory costs. Presumably, the inventory of parts needed to repair Kodak machines turns only on breakdown rates, and those rates should be the same whether Kodak or ISOs perform the repair. More importantly, the justification fails to explain respondents' evidence that Kodak forced OEMs, equipment owners, and parts brokers not to sell parts to ISOs, actions that would have no effect on Kodak's inventory costs. None of Kodak's asserted business justifications, then, are sufficient to prove that Kodak is â€Å"entitled to a judgment as a matter of law† on respondents'  § 2 claim. In the end, of course, Kodak's arguments may prove to be correct. It may be that its parts, service, and equipment are components of one unified market, or that the equipment market does discipline the aftermarkets so that all three are priced competitively overall, or that any anticompetitive effects of Kodak's behavior are outweighed by its competitive effects.. Accordingly, the judgment of the Court of Appeals denying summary judgment is affirmed.